                                          
                                          
                        PART I: MASTERING VIRTUE
                                          
                                          
                        PRECEPTS FOR LAY PEOPLE
                                          
       There are three sets of precepts for laypeople: the five 
  precepts, the eight precepts, and the ten guidelines. Here we will 
  discuss the five and the eight precepts first, saving the ten 
  guidelines for later. The five precepts can be divided into two sorts: 
  those dealing with bodily action and those dealing with speech. 
  Normalcy in bodily action is expressed by the precept against lying, 
  which involves refraining not only from lying, but also from divisive 
  tale-bearing, from coarse or abusive speech, and from aimless or idle 
  talk. As for the precept against taking intoxicants, it fits in with 
  the third precept -- against illicit sex -- in that both deal with 
  forms of intoxication.
  
       The eight precepts are derived from the five --and, like the 
  five, can be divided into two sorts. Seven deal with bodily action: 
  refraining from taking life; from stealing the possessions of others; 
  from any and all sexual intercourse; from eating food from the period 
  from noon until the following dawn; from watching dancing, singing, 
  instrumental music, and other shows, and from using garlands, 
  perfumes, cosmetics, and jewelry; and from using high and luxurious 
  beds and seats.
  
       The precepts, whether five or eight, are ultimately two: right 
  normalcy in bodily action and right normalcy in speech. //Sila//, the 
  Pali word for virtue and precept, literally means normalcy -- a 
  quality that can be separated into either five or eight component 
  virtues. The eight //uposatha// precepts do away with more defilements 
  of bodily action than do either the five precepts or the ten 
  guidelines. The bodily actions of a person who observes them weigh 
  lightly, like those of one who is ordained. (Speaking of ordination, 
  for women at least, it would appear that a person who observes the 
  eight precepts does away with more greed, anger, and delusion in terms 
  of bodily action than did the //sikkhamanas// (aspirants to nunhood) 
  of the past. Although as a novice the //sikkhamana// was expected to 
  observe the ten precepts, still when she was about to be ordained as a 
  nun she had to be strict in observing only the first six). So whoever 
  observes the eight precepts can be said to lead one form of the chaste 
  life -- //kala-brahmacariya//, temporary renunciation -- the only 
  difference being that one doesn't have to change one's mode of dress.
  
       It's a rare man or woman who will act in this way. Whoever does 
  can be counted as a person of value, a vessel for what is wise and 
  worthwhile, into which the practice of concentration (//samadhi//) 
  should be placed.
  
       The ten guidelines, unlike the five and eight precepts, don't 
  have to be taken as vows. Once you understand them, simply go ahead 
  and follow them. Altogether, they are of three sorts; three principles 
  dealing with bodily action, four with speech, and three with the 
  heart. The three principles dealing with bodily action are: not taking 
  life, not stealing, and not engaging in illicit sex or taking 
  intoxicants (the last two being counted as one). The four principles 
  dealing with speech are derived from the precept against lying: 
  refraining from lying, from divisive tale-bearing, from coarse or 
  abusive speech, and from idle, aimless and useless chatter.
  
       The three principles dealing with the heart are: //anabhijjha// 
  -- not coveting the possessions of others; //abyapada// -- not feeling 
  ill will, i.e. not wanting others to suffer misfortune; and 
  //samma-ditthi// -- right view, being convinced that the pleasure and 
  pain we experience come from our own good and bad actions: Whoever 
  does good will meet with good, whoever does evil will meet with evil.
  
       So altogether there are ten guidelines. These guidelines are 
  termed //kusala kammapatha//, wise policies or clean actions. They are 
  policies that should be adopted and followed -- the more constantly, 
  the better. Defilements related to greed will die away; those related 
  to anger and delusion won't have a chance to arise. Greed arises from 
  the thought of coveting -- the focusing of desire -- which is then 
  expressed as greed in one's thoughts, words, and deeds. One's thoughts 
  thus become restless and disturbed; one's words and deeds, unwise and 
  defiled. As for anger, it arises from ill will, which then gives rise 
  to hostility and finally to anger, fury, and violence. One's thoughts, 
  words, and deeds thus become unwise and defiled. Delusion arises from 
  wrong views, from ignorance of right and wrong, good and evil, making 
  one's thoughts, words, and deeds unwise and defiled.
  
       So you should kill these things off their source. Kill off 
  covetousness by sharing your possessions with others -- with your 
  children, brothers, sisters, relatives, friends, monks, nuns,  and 
  recluses -- which in the long run will be to your own benefit. This is 
  termed generosity (//dana//). Kill off ill will by developing thoughts 
  of benevolence, compassion, appreciation, and equanimity; and avoid 
  detrimental actions by observing the precepts (//sila//). Kill off 
  wrong views by associating with people who are knowledgeable and wise, 
  learning from them so as to develop your own insight and discernment. 
  This is termed mental development (//bhavana//).
  
       These are the techniques for curing greed, anger, and delusion. 
  Covetousness, ill will, and wrong views are the tap roots of 
  defilement; greed, anger, and delusion are the crown. The thoughts, 
  words, and deeds that express these qualities form the trunk and 
  branches, and the fruit is pain: the pain of birth, ageing, illness, 
  and death; of sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, and despair. 
  Normally, when we've eaten the flesh of a fruit, if we don't destroy 
  the seed, it will have a chance to sprout and form another tree. So it 
  is with defilement: If we don't destroy the seed, it will produce more 
  fruit. Thoughts that fasten and cling: These are the seed. People who 
  don't realize this, imagine this fruit to be something tasty and 
  delicious, and so are unwilling to abandon and destroy covetousness, 
  greed, ill will, and wrong views. As a result, they spin around in 
  this cycle in various ways, under the influence of these three sorts 
  of defilement. When these defilements arise in full force, whatever 
  status one may have will be shattered, whatever wealth one has will be 
  lost, the good opinion of others will turn to censure, one's happiness 
  will turn to misery, one's friends will flee, and one's family will 
  fall apart -- or even if it doesn't fall apart, it will be pained with 
  sorrow, as if its heart had been scalded with boiling water.
  
       So we should kill off these defilements by being generous with 
  our belongings; by observing the five precepts, the eight precepts, or 
  the ten guidelines; and by practicing concentration to develop the 
  mind, making it firm, unwavering, and still. Once these defilements 
  die, then even if you've never had wealth, you'll be wealthy; even if 
  you've never reached heaven, you'll attain it, constant and 
  unchanging, in line with the Buddha's verse on the rewards of the five 
  precepts:
  
                      //silena sugatim yanti//
                  Through virtue they go to heaven.
                       //silena bhoga-sampada//
                 Through virtue wealth is attained.
                      //silena nibbutim yanti//
               Through virtue they go to liberation --
        secure happiness, free from all suffering and stress.
                      //tasma silam visodhaye//
                Thus we should all purify our virtue.
  
  
                                 * * *
  
       Question: At what times should the five precepts, the eight 
  precepts, and the ten guidelines be observed?
  
       Answer: The five precepts and ten guidelines should be observed 
  at all times -- without any reference to morning, evening, noon, or 
  night -- as constant or timeless principles (//nicca-sila//, 
  //akalika-sila//). As for the eight uposatha precepts, a pattern has 
  been established -- in line with the varying abilities and 
  opportunities of laypeople -- of gathering to observe the precepts 
  together once every seven or eight days on the lunar sabbath: the day 
  of the new moon, the full moon, and the eighth day of the waxing and 
  waning moons -- altogether four times a month. This pattern is for 
  people who don't have much time or opportunity. If, however, you have 
  plenty of time and opportunity, let your own conviction be your guide. 
  Focus on goodness, and not on the calendar, observing the precepts on 
  your own, making whatever day you observe them -- no matter what the 
  date or season -- your own personal uposatha day.
  
       Someone might object here, saying, "If it isn't the lunar 
  sabbath, then you can't say you're observing the uposatha precepts."
  
       "If they're not uposatha precepts, what are they?"
  
       "Just the ordinary eight precepts."
  
       "Is it good or bad to observe the eight precepts?"
  
       "...Good."
  
       "And we observe the precepts for the sake of the good, don't we? 
  So if we've hit the good right on the nose, what does it matter if 
  we've hit the wrong day?"
  
       Here we should translate the word "uposatha." Literally, it means 
  "approaching respite" from all that is corrupt and unwise. So by 
  definitions, if there's no respite from corruption in your actions, 
  then it's not uposatha day. There's no way you can guarantee that this 
  or that date is an uposatha day or whatever. Still, the pattern of 
  observing the eight precepts on the lunar sabbath is a good one for 
  people who don't have much opportunity. But if you do have the 
  opportunity, you shouldn't limit yourself just to those days, because 
  virtue, by its nature, isn't too particular about the date.
  
       This being the case, we should set up gradations so that those 
  who feel inspired to practice can do so as they are able:
  
       1. The first group observes the eight precepts on each lunar 
  sabbath during the rainy season: three months, four days a month, thus 
  twelve days. This is termed //mudu//, the weak level.
  
       2. The intermediate level -- //majjhima uposatha// -- observes 
  the eight precepts on each lunar sabbath, without fail, throughout the 
  year: twelve months, four days a month, thus 48 days a year.
  
       3. The highest level -- //ukkattha uposatha// -- observes the 
  eight precepts on each lunar sabbath, and on the day before and the 
  day after each sabbath, without reference to month or season: twelve 
  months, twelve days a month, thus 144 days a year. This is for people 
  of firm conviction. Or, if you want, you can aim higher than that and 
  observe the eight precepts at all times and in every season, focusing 
  on the quality of virtue itself instead of on the ordinances and 
  conventions of the world -- just like the Buddhist nuns who, in our 
  day and times, observe these very same eight precepts.
  
                                 * * *
  
       Virtue can be established on one of two bases: either through (1) 
  making a vow (//samadana-virati//), as when we repeat the precepts 
  after a monk or novice (here it is also necessary to learn exactly 
  what vices and misdeeds are forbidden by each of the five or eight 
  precepts); or (2) simply deciding on our own to abstain from a 
  particular vice or misdeed (//sampatta-virati//). In other words, when 
  you want to keep your character pure, you can go ahead and decide to 
  refrain from misconduct on your own. Once virtue is established, and 
  you are careful to safeguard it out of a sense of conscience so that 
  it doesn't lapse, this is termed //samuccheda-virati//: absolute 
  abstinence.
  
       For virtue to be kept pure depends on two factors: perseverance 
  and the four Sublime Attitudes (benevolence, compassion, appreciation, 
  and equanimity). An example of keeping the precepts through 
  perseverance would be: Suppose you're accustomed to killing animals. 
  If you decide to observe the precepts, you hold off for a day or so, 
  but you have no strong sense of perseverance to get you through. Once 
  you get past your self-imposed time limit, you go back to your old 
  ways. Observing the precepts through perseverance in this way means to 
  exercise self-control so as not to commit whatever misdeeds you've 
  been accustomed to.
  
  
       Question: Is there any value in observing the precepts in this 
  way?
  
       Answer: There can be -- as far as that particular day is 
  concerned. Seeing the light every once in a long while is better than 
  never seeing it at all.
  
       To observe the precepts through the Sublime Attitudes, though, 
  means to wish for the happiness of other living beings, to sympathize 
  with the fact that no one wants to suffer, that we all desire 
  well-being and freedom from harm. Once you realize this, and a sense 
  of compassion arises, you wouldn't dare transgress the precepts you've 
  undertaken. Observing the precepts through benevolence in this way 
  bears powerful rewards.
  
       Whoever puts virtue fully and completely into practice can aspire 
  to any attainment: rebirth as a human being, rebirth in heaven, or 
  //nibbana//. Such a person can aspire to a beautiful appearance and 
  voice, fragrant aromas, delicious tastes, delicate sensations, and 
  delightful moods. To have virtue is to have wealth: The five precepts 
  are equal to 50 pounds of gold bullion; the eight precepts, 80 pounds; 
  the ten guidelines, 100. Actually, moral virtue is something valuable 
  beyond price. Virtue and generosity, taken together, are the 
  qualifying factors for rebirth as a human being and rebirth in heaven. 
  Virtue, generosity, and the development of the mind through meditation 
  are the qualifying factors for nibbana. So we should all try to find 
  the time to perform those actions that will lead to our true welfare 
  in the coming future.
  
  
                                 * * *
  
                   THE SERVICE FOR THE LUNAR SABBATH
  
       Before taking the precepts, first pay respect to the Triple Gem 
  -- the Buddha, the Dhamma (the Truth he taught), and the Sangha (those 
  of his followers who attained that Truth) --
  
       ARAHAM  SAMMA-SAMBUDDHO  BHAGAVA
            The Blessed One is Worthy & Rightly Self-awakened
       BUDDHAM  BHAGAVANTAM  ABHIVADEMI
            I bow down before the Awakened, Blessed One.
       (bow down)
       
       SVAKKHATO  BHAGAVATA  DHAMMO
            The Dhamma is well-expounded by the Blessed One.
       DHAMMAM  NAMASSAMI
            I pay homage to the Dhamma
       (bow down)
       
       SUPATIPANNO  BHAGAVATO  SAVAKA-SANGHO
            The Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples has practiced 
          well.
       SANGHAM  NAMAMI
            I pay respect to the Sangha.
       (bow down)
  
  Now the group will chant the standard morning service. If you don't 
  know it, simply remain silent. When the group has finished, it will 
  chant the request for the precepts in unison. Again, if you don't know 
  it, remain silent. The request for the five precepts is as follows:
  
       MAYAM  BHANTE  TI-SARANENA  SAHA  PANCA  SILANI  YACAMA
         Venerable sir, we request the five precepts      together 
          with the Three Refuges.
       DUTIYAMPI  MAYAM  BHANTE ....YACAMA
         A second time....
       TATIYAMPI  MAYAM  BHANTE ....YACAMA
         A third time....
       
    The request for the eight uposatha precepts:
       
       MAYAM  BHANTE  TI-SARANENA  SAHA  ATTHANGA-SAMANNAGATAM  
        UPOSATHAM  YACAMA
         Venerable sir, we request the eight-factored uposatha 
          observance   together with the Three Refuges.
       DUTIYAMPI  MAYAM  BHANTE ....YACAMA
         A second time....
       TATIYAMPI  MAYAM  BHANTE ....YACAMA
         A third time....
       
    Then repeat the phrase paying homage to the Buddha:
       
       NAMO  TASSA  BHAGAVATO  ARAHATO  SAMMA-SAMBUDDHASSA (three 
        times)
         Homage to the Blessed One, the Worthy One,   the Rightly 
          Self-awakened One.
       
    And then the phrases for taking refuge in the Triple Gem:
       
       BUDDHAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         I go to the Buddha for refuge.
       DHAMMAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         I go to the Dhamma for refuge.
       SANGHAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         I go to the Sangha for refuge.
       
       DUTIYAMPI  BUDDHAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         A second time, I go to the Buddha for refuge.
       DUTIYAMPI  DHAMMAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         A second time, I go to the Dhamma for refuge.
       DUTIYAMPI  SANGHAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         A second time, I go to the Sangha for refuge.
       
       TATIYAMPI  BUDDHAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         A third time, I go to the Buddha for refuge.
       TATIYAMPI  DHAMMAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         A third time, I go to the Dhamma for refuge.
       TATIYAMPI  SANGHAM  SARANAM  GACCHAMI
         A third time, I go to the Sangha for refuge.
       
    This finished, the monk who is officiating will say, 
  TI-SARANA-GAMANAM  NITTHITAM ("The taking of the three refuges is now 
  completed"). You say, AMA  BHANTE (Yes, sir). Now repeat the precepts 
  after him (translations are given below):
       
       1. PANATIPATA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM  SAMADIYAMI
       2. ADINNADANA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM  SAMADIYAMI
       3. KAMESU  MICCHACARA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM  SAMADIYAMI
    (If you are taking the eight precepts replace this with:
       ABRAHMA-CARIYA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM  SAMADIYAMI)
       4. MUSAVADA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM  SAMADIYAMI
       5. SURA-MERAYA-MAJJA-PAMADATTHANA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM
       SAMADIYAMI
       
    (If you are taking the five precepts, stop here. If you are taking 
  the eight precepts, continue:
    
       6. VIKALA-BHOJANA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM  SAMADIYAMI
       7. NACCA-GITA-VADITA-VISUKA-DASSANA  MALA-GANDHA-VILEPENA-
       DHARANA-MANDANA-VIBHUSANATTHANA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM      
        SAMADIYAMI
       8. UCCASAYANA-MAHASAYANA  VERAMANI  SIKKHAPADAM  SAMADIYAMI
       
    If you are taking the uposatha precepts, the monk will announce the 
  duration of the uposatha period. Repeat after him:
       
       IMAM  ATTHANGA-SAMANNAGATAM
       BUDDHA-PANNATTAM  UPOSATHAM
       IMANCA  RATTIM  IMANCA  DIVASAM
       SAMMADEVA  ABHIRAKKHITUM  SAMADIYAMI
       
    (which means: I undertake to maintain, perfect and pure for today 
  and tonight, this uposatha observance formulated by the Buddha and 
  composed of eight factors.) The monk will counsel heedfulness and 
  announce the rewards of observing the precepts:
       
       IMANI  ATTHA  SIKKHAPADANI  ACCEKAM  RATTIN-DIVAM     
        UPOSATHASILA-VASENA  SADHUKAM  RAKKHITABBANI
         (These eight training rules are to be well maintained for 
          the entire day & night of the Uposatha period.)
    (you say, AMA BHANTE (Yes, sir.)) The monk will continue:
       
       SILENA SUGATIM YANTI  SILENA BHOGA-SAMPADA  SILENA NIBBUTIM 
        YANTI  TASMA SILAM VISODHAYE
         Through virtue they go to heaven.
         Through virtue wealth is attained.
         Through virtue they go to liberation   Thus we should all 
          purify our virtue.
       
       
    This ends the taking of the precepts.
  
                                 * * *
  
    The precepts translated are as follows:
  
       1. I undertake the training rule to refrain from taking life.
       2. To refrain from stealing.
       3. To refrain from illicit sex. (This is for those who are taking 
  the five precepts. The precept, ABRAHMA-CARIYA..., for those taking 
  the eight precepts, forbids all forms of sexual intercourse.)
       4. To refrain from speaking falsehood.
       5. To refrain from taking intoxicants.
       6. To refrain from eating food during the period from noon until 
  the following dawn.
       7. To refrain from watching shows (e.g., dancing, singing, 
  instrumental music) and from ornamenting the body with flowers, 
  scents, cosmetics, or jewelry.
       8. To refrain from using high and luxurious beds and seats. 
  "Luxurious" means having a stuffed cushion or mattress. "High" means 
  more than ten inches high. Armchairs and couches with arms, however, 
  even if they are more than ten inches high, are not prohibited by this 
  precept.
  
                                 * * *
  
       The precepts, whether five or eight, have two foundations. In 
  other words, for them to be broken, they must be transgressed by 
  either (1) the body in conjunction with the mind, or (2) speech in 
  conjunction with the mind. A precept transgressed unintentionally with 
  a bodily action is nevertheless still intact. Say, for instance, you 
  cut a tree or gather flowers to place on an altar, and it so happens 
  that the insects living in the tree or flower stem die. You had no 
  idea they were there in the first place. In this case, your precepts 
  are still intact because you had no intention in mind for them to die. 
  As for verbal acts, suppose that you speak hurriedly, and what you end 
  up saying is different from what you had meant to say, out of either 
  carelessness or inattention. For example, you meant to say three 
  words, but ended up saying four; you meant to tell the truth, but what 
  you actually said was false. Since it was simply a verbal act, and you 
  didn't have it in mind to speak misleadingly, your precepts are still 
  intact.
  
       A breach of the ten guidelines can be effected with one of as 
  many as three factors: the body in conjunction with the mind, speech 
  in conjunction with the mind, or the mind acting alone. In other 
  words, a transgression of any sort in thought, word, or deed has to be 
  intentional for there to be a breach in one's virtue, because the 
  intention -- the will to abstain (//cetana-virati//) -- forms the 
  essence of virtue. This can be checked against any of the various 
  precepts. Intention is the essence of virtue; aspects of virtue apart 
  from that intention are simply its expressions and applications.
  
       The intention that qualifies as virtue is the will to abstain in 
  line with the five or eight precepts. As for the precepts, they give 
  expression to the intention, while the rules that detail exactly what 
  actions are forbidden by the various precepts indicate the scope of 
  its application. Virtue is normalcy. Normalcy and right equilibrium in 
  word and deed is expressed by the five precepts and eight uposatha 
  precepts. Normalcy and right equilibrium in thought, word, and deed is 
  expressed by the ten guidelines.
  
       The statement that intention is the essence of virtue is 
  supported by the passage in the Canon where the Buddha says,
  
       //cetanaham bhikkhave kammam vadami//
       The intention, monks, is what I maintain to be action.
  
                                 * * *
  
       Virtue, as practiced by Buddhists in general, can be summarized 
  into three categories:  //hina-sila//, //gocara-sila// and 
  //anagocara-sila//.
  
       1. //Hina-sila// means simply obeying the precepts. For instance, 
  the first precept tells you not to kill, so you hope to gain merit by 
  looking out for the lives of others, not causing them to die. The 
  second precept tells you not to steal, so you hope to get some good 
  out of taking care of the possessions of others, not causing them to 
  disappear. The third precept rules out illicit sex, so you go around 
  looking out for other people's spouses and children. The fourth 
  precept rules out lying, so you go around looking after other people's 
  ears by not putting lies in them. The fifth precept rules out alcohol, 
  so you do your part for other people's liquor bottles by not making 
  them go empty. The same holds true for the other precepts. Practicing 
  virtue in this way is tantamount to being a watchman for other 
  people's goods. You put yourself on the level of a slave or hired 
  cow-hand. Whether you observe the five or even the eight precepts, 
  this is classed as the lowest level of virtue, or as 
  //silabbatupadana//, attachment to external forms of goodness.
  
       2. //Gocara-sila// means making sure that the mind occupies 
  itself only with good intentions, such as thinking of ways to act that 
  will be wise and meritorious. Whether your thoughts deal with the past 
  or the future, with visual objects, sounds, smells, tastes, tactile 
  sensations, or ideas, you are careful to keep them in line with wise 
  intentions, not letting them fall into ways that are corrupt or 
  ill-considered.
  
       3. //Anagocara-sila// means keeping the mind in the present, not 
  letting it wander among distracting thoughts. You are mindful and 
  self-aware, keeping watch over the mind so that it stays exclusively 
  in the present. //This// is virtue -- when virtue reaches a state of 
  normalcy -- the sort of virtue worthy of heaven and //nibbana//.
  
       The virtue that is careful not to break the precepts can counter 
  the cruder forms of greed. The virtue that guards the mind's train of 
  thought, keeping it from traveling in the area of shoddy intentions, 
  can do away with anger and aversion. The virtue that enters into the 
  present -- i.e., virtue in a state of normalcy -- can do away with 
  delusion. Thus we can say that virtue can do away with the cruder 
  forms of defilement, i.e., certain levels of greed, anger, and 
  delusion.
  
                                 * * *
  
       To continue with the service for the lunar sabbath: Now you have 
  the opportunity to hear a sermon. The request for a sermon is as 
  follows:
  
       BRAHMA  CA  LOKADHIPATI  SAHAMPATI
       KATANJALI  ANDHIVARAM  AYACATHA
       SANTIDHA  SATTAPPARAJAKKHA-JATIKA
       DESETU  DHAMMAM  ANUKAMPIMAM  PAJAM
         (The Brahma Sahampati, lord of the world,
         With hands palm-to-palm before his heart
         [approached the Lord Buddha and] requested a blessing:
         There are beings here with only a little dust in their eyes.
         Please teach the Dhamma out of compassion for them.)
  
       Now compose your thoughts and keep them fixed on absorbing the 
  nourishment of the Dhamma. Once the sermon is finished, you may 
  proclaim yourself to be a lay adherent of the Buddha, as follows:
  
       AHAM BUDDHANCA DHAMMANCA
        SANGHANCA SARANAM GATO
         I have gone to the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha for refuge.
       UPASAKATTAM DESESIM
        BHIKKHU-SANGHASSA SAMUKKHA
         I have declared my adherence in the presence of the Bhikkhu 
          Sangha.
        ETAM ME SARANAM KHEMAM
        ETAM SARANAM-UTTAMAM
         This is my secure refuge,
         This is my highest refuge
       ETAM SARANAM-AGAMMA
        SABBA-DUKKHA PAMUCCAYE
         This is the refuge, having gone to which,
         One is released from all suffering & stress.
       YATHA-BALAM CAREYYAHAM
        SAMMA-SAMBUDDHA-SASANAM
         I will follow, as well as I am able
         The teachings of the Rightly Self-awakened One
       DUKKHA-NISSARANASSEVA
       BHAGI ASSAM ANAGATE
         So that in the future I will have a part
         Of the escape from suffering & stress.
      
    (Women should substitute GATA for GATO, UPASIKATTAM for UPASAKATTAM, 
  and BHAGINISSAM for BHAGI ASSAM.)
    
       The Pali word for adherent, //upasaka// (fem. //upasika//), 
  literally means "one who is close." There are ten qualities looked for 
  in adherent: five activities to be refrained from and five qualities 
  to possess. The five to be refrained from are:
  
       1. selling weapons,
       2. selling human beings,
       3. selling animals to be killed for food, or the flesh of animals 
  that one has killed oneself,
       4. selling intoxicants,
       5. selling poison.
  
  The five qualities to possess:
  
       1. conviction,
       2. observance of the precepts,
       3. belief in nothing but the principle of //kamma// -- that those 
  who do good will meet with good, those who do evil will meet with 
  evil,
       4. an unwillingness to look for merit in ways excluded by the 
  Buddha's teachings,
       5. performance of merit in ways particular to the Buddha's 
  teachings.
  
       To possess these qualifications means by definition that one is 
  an adherent to generosity, virtue, and meditation.
  
                                 * * *
  
       Now that the service is over, you should take the opportunity to 
  develop peace and respite of mind. Don't let the day go to waste. Take 
  the word //buddho// as your meditation exercise. To be intent on 
  repeating the word //buddho// in your mind is one form of 
  concentration (//samadhi//). Discernment (//panna//) means thorough 
  comprehension of all fashioned and conditioned things. The value of 
  discernment is that it abandons all forms of defilement. Virtue, 
  concentration, and discernment: These qualities form the heart of the 
  Buddha's message, which we should all try to develop to the best of 
  our abilities.
  
       Now we will pose a number of questions dealing with virtue and 
  concentration as a way of further elaborating on these topics.
  
                                 * * *
  
                      VIRTUE: QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
  
       1.  What are the benefits of observing the precepts?
           What are the drawbacks of not observing them?
       2.  What is meant by virtue?
       3.  How many kinds of virtue are there?
       4.  What is the essence of virtue?
       5.  What is needed for virtue to be maintained?
  
       1. To answer the first question: People observing the precepts 
  can perceive the following benefits as far as this lifetime is 
  concerned: They are not distrusted or despised by people at large; 
  they can enter with confidence into the company of sages and people in 
  general. After they die, they are sure to qualify for rebirth on the 
  human plane at the very least. For these reasons, virtuous people are 
  not willing to let their virtue be defiled.
  
       Another answer is that virtuous people are admired throughout the 
  world. Why is this so? Because no one in the world likes abuse, not 
  even the least little bit. Not to mention good people, even thieves 
  and robbers complain about people who have no principles, as when they 
  get together to commit a robbery: The members of the band are sure to 
  find fault with each other because of the hardships involved in what 
  they're doing. Still, they go ahead and do it, out of their own 
  ignorance, stupidity, and lack of judgment.
  
       Another answer is that people who observe the precepts work for 
  the prosperity of this world and the  next. Most of us overlook this 
  aspect of virtue. Wrong looks right to us, and we think that observing 
  the precepts retards progress, that people who observe the precepts 
  are old-fashioned and behind the times, or that the precepts make it 
  impossible to earn a living. All of these views have no basis in 
  truth. Exactly how do the precepts retard progress? Consider this 
  carefully: The nature of the world is that not a single person likes 
  to suffer. Even common animals don't set their sights on pain. So to 
  be virtuous means not to ruin the world, but to protect it and help it 
  advance. When the Buddha established the precepts, he did so not 
  merely in line with his own opinions, but rather in line with the ways 
  and opinions of people throughout the world. How can we know that this 
  is so? We needn't ask the Buddha himself; we can consider the matter 
  on our own:
  
       (a) Take a simple example, like killing:  Fishermen make their 
  living by killing, and some of them end up making money by the 
  fistfuls from it. Still, they complain about the hardships of their 
  work and sometimes they even fall in the ocean and drown. The fact 
  that they complain about their work shows they don't like it. As for 
  the fish, they don't like it either. Even gnats and mosquitoes don't 
  like being abused. So why do we abuse them? Because we haven't 
  associated with wise people. We see the harm and the pain, yet we 
  still go ahead and do it out of our own darkness and delusion. This is 
  one example to show that the Buddha established the precepts in line 
  with the views of the world.
  
       Example (b): Stealing, Is there anyone in the world who likes it? 
  If the world liked stealing, there probably wouldn't be laws 
  forbidding it -- and what human society doesn't have such laws? The 
  fact that we have these laws shows that we don't like stealing. Even 
  things about to be stolen don't like to have people steal them. 
  Animals, for instance, when they're cornered by thieves, will try to 
  run away. Thieves and robbers usually complain that their work is hard 
  -- always having to lurk and keep out of sight, going without food and 
  sleep. The fact that they complain shows that they don't like their 
  work. So why do they do it? Because they haven't associated with wise 
  people. Wrong looks right to them because of their own darkness and 
  delusion.
  
       Example (c): Adultery. Who in the world likes it? Go ask those 
  who do it, and they'll complain that they suffer from it. Ask those 
  who are done to, and they'll complain that they suffer from it and 
  don't like it. Sometimes they end up killing themselves. This shows 
  that the world doesn't care for it. So why do people do it? Because 
  they haven't associated with wise people. Wrong looks right to them, 
  and so they bring about the ruin of the world. They get fined or put 
  in jail, and get into difficulties with their families, knocking one 
  another over the skull just for the fun of it. To do wrong in this way 
  will bring tears to a parent's eyes and ears, and trouble to the 
  hearts of the authorities. These are things that bring about the ruin 
  of the world.
  
       Example (d): Lying. Is there anyone in the world who likes it? 
  When a person is lying, he has to be wary out of fear that others will 
  find him out. When he's about to lie, he suffers in trying to figure 
  out how to get away with it. Once he's lied, he suffers out of fear 
  that no one will believe him. A person who is lied to has to question 
  and cross-examine, out of fear that what he's heard may not be true. 
  Even small children don't like to be lied to. Say that a child is 
  crying for its mother, and its father lies to it, saying, "There -- 
  your mother's coming." When it doesn't see its mother, it'll cry 
  without stopping. Why? Because it can't trust its father. But not to 
  mention human beings, even animals don't like to be lied to. Say that 
  we take some cooked rice and lure a dog with it. Once it sees the 
  rice, it'll think we're going to feed it, so it comes prancing up with 
  its rear high and its tail wagging -- but instead of feeding it, we 
  take the rice and run off. If we do this three or four times, after 
  that it probably won't come, because it knows we're lying. This shows 
  that no one likes lies. So why do people lie? Because they haven't 
  associated with wise people. Wrong looks right to them, and so they 
  cause the world to degenerate.
  
       Example (e): Alcohol. There is one who likes the drinking of 
  alcohol. People who brew it complain of their difficulties: that it's 
  a losing business, that they're afraid they'll be seen by the police 
  or cheated by their customers. People who drink alcohol complain that 
  it makes them dizzy, or that it eats up their salaries and leaves them 
  poor. I have yet to hear anyone extol drinking as a way to health, 
  wealth, and happiness. If people who drink really thought it were 
  good, they probably wouldn't come back to drinking plain old water or 
  eating plain old food again. Once people get drunk, they start acting 
  rowdy and disgusting in ways that people in general neither praise nor 
  admire. Even their own families get disgusted with them, and they 
  themselves complain that they're in debt or don't have enough money to 
  spend, which shows that they themselves don't like or admire their 
  habit.
  
       In some places the government, acting out of concern for the 
  public well-being, has established laws to prevent the damages that 
  come from the drinking of alcohol. (I personally have wondered whether 
  the money the government makes from taxing alcohol is enough to cover 
  the damages caused by people who drink. I doubt that it is, but this 
  is simply my own opinion. You might want to consider the matter for 
  yourself. One common example is when people get together to drink -- 
  either legal whiskey or bootleg -- and get to talking: One bottle of 
  whiskey, and maybe one of them ends up killed. The pittance the 
  government gets from the bottle of whiskey is probably nowhere near 
  enough to pay for the costs of tracking down the guilty parties in a 
  case like this.)
  
       Thus the Buddha saw the evils in this sort of behavior: that it 
  causes the world to degenerate and hampers people from making a 
  living. A drunk person, for instance, can't do any steady labor. All 
  he can do is brag. I don't mean to be critical here, but it's 
  something I've often seen. For instance, when a farmer has his 
  neighbors over to help harvest his rice, they'll make plenty of noise, 
  but when you go to take a look at their work, you'll find the rice 
  scattered all over the place.
  
       Once I came across a well dug at a crazy angle, but when I peered 
  down at the water, it looked clean and fresh. So I said to the owner, 
  "The water looks good. Why didn't you do a good job of digging the 
  well? Was it because you ran into a rock? Or a tree root? When was it 
  dug? Who dug it? Did you do it yourself, or hire someone to do it for 
  you?"
  
       So the owner answered, "I had some friends over to help dig it."
  
       "How did you get them to dig so deep? It must have cost a lot of 
  money."
  
       "I served whiskey until we were all good and drunk, and then we 
  got down to digging the well, which is why it ended up so crooked."
  
       This goes to show how liquor can spoil a job.
  
       All of the examples I've mentioned here -- brief, but enough to 
  serve as food for thought -- show that the world doesn't like these 
  things, that they cause damage and loss, putting money, labor and 
  people to waste. And this goes to show that the Buddha forbade these 
  things in line with the views of the world. Not one of the precepts 
  runs counter to those views. This being so, which one of the precepts 
  retards progress or creates trouble?
  
       Then why don't people perceive this? Because they haven't 
  associated with wise people, and so wrong looks right to them. They go 
  counter to the world, and suffer for it. The Buddha taught in line 
  with the aspirations of the world, for the progress of people and 
  nations. If people were truly to abstain in line with the precepts, 
  life on earth would be happy in the visible present.
  
       This ends the discussion of the first topic, the benefits and 
  drawbacks of observing and not observing the precepts.
  
  
       2. The second question -- "What is meant by virtue?" -- can be 
  answered as follows: The Pali word for virtue, sila, means normalcy. 
  "Normalcy" refers to a lack of deviation in thought, word, and deed, 
  while "lack of deviation" refers to the act of not doing evil with 
  one's deeds, not speaking evil with one's words, and not thinking evil 
  with one's thoughts: in other words, abstaining from three types of 
  harmful bodily action, four types of harmful speech, and three types 
  of harmful thought. The three bodily actions to be avoided are taking 
  life, stealing, and taking intoxicants and engaging in illicit sex. To 
  avoid these things, not letting the body deviate in their direction, 
  is for the body to be in a state of normalcy. The four types of speech 
  to be avoided are lies, divisive tale-bearing, coarse and abusive 
  speech, and idle, aimless chatter. To keep one's speech from deviating 
  in the direction of these things is for speech to be in a state of 
  normalcy. For thought to be in a state of normalcy means (a) not 
  coveting the belongings of others, (b) not feeling ill will towards 
  those people or living beings whose actions are displeasing, and (c) 
  viewing things rightly: seeing that all living beings fare according 
  to their actions -- those with good intentions will meet with good, 
  those with evil intentions will meet with evil -- and that no one 
  aspires to suffering. Once you see things in this way, maintain this 
  viewpoint. Don't let it deviate into ways that are wrong.
  
       To keep one's thoughts, words and deeds in a state of normalcy 
  and equilibrium like this is what is meant by virtue. The word 
  "equilibrium" here, though, doesn't rule out all action; it rules out 
  only the types of action that cause one's words and deeds to move in 
  ways that are wrong. Apart from such deviations, whoever has the 
  energy to perform work of whatever sort in making a living is free to 
  do so, because the precepts of the Buddha aren't lazy precepts or 
  faint-hearted precepts, down-and out or bump-on-the-log precepts -- 
  i.e., precepts that don't let you do anything at all. That's not the 
  sort of thing the Buddha taught. As for speech, whoever has anything 
  to say that is free from harm is free to go ahead and say it. The 
  precepts  of the Buddha aren't mute precepts or dumb precepts; they're 
  precepts that let you speak what is proper. And as for the mind, 
  whoever has ideas that will lead to knowledge or ingenuity in making a 
  living is free to think them through. The Buddha didn't forbid this 
  sort of thinking. He forbade only those things that are harmful, 
  because the basic principle of virtue in Buddhism is to abstain from 
  what is evil or crooked in thought, word, and deed, and to develop 
  what is upright and honest in thought, word, and deed. This shows that 
  the Buddha taught to abstain from those things that ought to be 
  abstained from, and to do those things that ought to be done. This 
  point is substantiated by such factors of the Noble Path as Right 
  Undertaking and Right Livelihood. But most of us believe that to 
  maintain the precepts confines you to a monastery and prevents you 
  from making a living or even wiggling a finger. This belief is wrong: 
  counter to the Buddha's teaching and detrimental to the progress of 
  the world.
  
       To maintain the precepts -- to be virtuous -- means to keep one's 
  words and deeds in a state of normalcy. Whatever work virtuous people 
  perform is pure. The wealth they obtain as a result is solid and 
  lasting. Whatever virtuous people say -- no matter how much they speak 
  -- won't grate on the ears of their listeners. It can bring fortune 
  their way, as well as leaving the ears of their listeners soothed. 
  Whatever virtuous people contemplate, if it's a difficult job, it will 
  become easier; if it's an object to be made, it may become beautiful, 
  all because of the very principles of virtue. Most of us, though, tend 
  to be too contemptuous of virtue to put it to use in our work and 
  activities, which is why we act as a deadweight and can't keep up with 
  the progress of the world.
  
       A person whose thoughts, words and deeds are not governed by 
  virtue is like a person covered with germs or soot: Whatever work he 
  or she touches is soiled and will rarely succeed in its aims. Even if 
  it does succeed, its success won't be lasting. The same holds true for 
  speech: A person whose speech isn't consistently virtuous will usually 
  be distrusted and despised by his listeners. If he tries to talk them 
  out of their money, it will come with difficulty; once he gets it, it 
  won't stay with him for long. And so it is with the mind: If a person 
  doesn't have virtue in charge of his heart, his thinking is darkened. 
  Whatever projects he contemplates will succeed with difficulty and -- 
  even if they do succeed -- will be neither good nor lasting.
  
       People who want to keep their thoughts, words, and deeds in a 
  state of normalcy have to be mindful. In other words, they have to 
  keep check over their actions in all they do -- sitting, standing, 
  walking, and lying down -- so they can know that they haven't done 
  anything evil. A person who doesn't keep his actions in check is like 
  a person without any clothes: Wherever he goes, he offends people. 
  There's even the story of the man was so absent-minded that he went 
  out wearing his wife's blouse and sarong, which goes to show what 
  happens to a person who doesn't keep his actions in check.
  
       A person who doesn't keep his speech in check is like a rice pot 
  without a lid. When the water boils, it will overflow and put out the 
  fire. A person who doesn't always keep his thoughts in check -- 
  thinking endlessly of how to make money, of how to get rich, until he 
  loses touch with reality -- is bound to do himself harm. Some people 
  think so much that they can't eat or sleep, to the point where they 
  damage their nerves and become mentally unbalanced, all because their 
  thinking has nothing to act as a basis, nothing to keep it in check.
  
       Thus people who lack mindfulness can harm themselves, in line 
  with the fact that they are at the same time people without virtue.
  
       This ends the discussion of the second topic.
  
       3. The third question -- "How many kinds of virtue are there?" -- 
  can be answered as follows: To divide them in precise terms, there are 
  five kinds, corresponding to the five precepts, the eight precepts, 
  the ten guidelines, the ten precepts, and the 227 precepts. To divide 
  them in broad terms, there are two: The virtues for laypeople on the 
  one hand, and for monks and novices on the other.
  
       From another standpoint, there are three: those dealing with 
  bodily action, those dealing with speech, and those dealing with the 
  mind.
  
       From another standpoint, there are two:  primary virtues 
  (//adi-brahma-cariya-sikkha//), i.e. the five basic precepts that
  
  have to be studied and observed first, such as the precepts against 
  taking life; and then, once these are mastered, the next level: 
  mannerly behavior (//abhisamacara//) dealing with personal conduct in 
  such areas as having one's meals, etc.
  
        From still another standpoint, there are two sorts of virtue: 
  mundane (//lokiya//) and transcendent (//lokuttara//). Transcendent 
  virtues can be either the lay virtues or the virtues for monks. If a 
  person, lay or ordained, has attained true normalcy of mind, his or 
  her virtues are transcendent. The virtues of a person who has yet to 
  attain the normalcy of Stream-entry, though -- no matter whether that 
  person is a layperson or a monk, strict in observing the precepts or 
  not -- are merely mundane. Mundane virtues are by nature inconstant, 
  sometimes pure and sometimes not; some people who observe them go to 
  heaven, others who do go to hell. The transcendent virtues, however, 
  are constant and lead straight to nibbana. They are virtues that can 
  rule out rebirth in the four realms of deprivation (//apaya-bhumi//).
  
        The virtues of a person who has reached the transcendent level 
  are the genuine virtues taught by the Buddha, which are nobler and 
  more valuable than all other virtues. The mundane virtues, even the 
  227 precepts of a monk, are no match in quality for the five virtues 
  of a lay Stream-enterer: That's how valuable the transcendent virtues 
  are. Why is it that a Stream-enterer's virtues are constant, while 
  those of ordinary run-of-the-mill people aren't? Because 
  Stream-enterers have shed self-identification (//sakkaya-ditthi//) 
  once and for all through the power of discernment. What does their 
  discernment come from? From having developed concentration, making the 
  mind firm to the point where discernment arises and washes 
  self-identification away for good. They've seen the harm that comes 
  from being deluded about the mind and body, and can realize that these 
  things aren't the self. They've investigated the body until they've 
  seen that it's nothing but the four physical properties (//dhatu//), 
  that they didn't bring it with them when they came and won't take it 
  with them when they go. Thus they are able to let it go, without 
  attachment or false assumptions.
  
       If we view the body as our own, we become possessive of it and 
  are unwilling to expend it in ways that are wise and worthwhile. We 
  get stuck on the level of physical pleasure -- and that pleasure is 
  what kills off our merit and welfare. When physical pain arises, that 
  pain is what kills off the merit we should make. This can be classed 
  as a form of //panatipata// (taking life): using pleasure and pain to 
  kill off the merit and welfare that living beings are looking for. 
  This is one aspect of self-identification that Stream-enterers have 
  abandoned.
  
       (b) //Adinnadana//: Stream-enterers don't fasten onto the body as 
  being their own, because they've realized that it's nothing but a 
  compound of the four physical properties, that these properties are 
  part and parcel of the world and can't be taken from it. As a result, 
  they don't try to cheat or swindle the world by laying claim to its 
  properties as being their own, and in this way they abandon another 
  aspect of self-identification.
  
       (c) //Kamesu micchacara//:  Stream-enterers have seen the harm 
  that comes from sensual preoccupations -- sights, sounds, smells, 
  flavors, tactile sensations, and ideas. Whatever is right to indulge 
  in, they indulge in; whatever isn't, they don't. This means that they 
  don't misconduct themselves with regard to sensual matters. Thus they 
  abandon another aspect of self-identification.
  
       (d) //Musavada//: Stream-enterers have seen the absolute truth 
  that doesn't lie. In other words, they've seen the four Noble Truths 
  and so have abandoned another aspect of self-identification.
  
       (e) //Surameraya//: Stream-enterers are not intoxicated or 
  heedless with regard to sights, sounds, smells, flavors, tactile 
  sensations, or ideas. Thus they abandon another aspect of 
  self-identification.
  
       This is called virtue on the level of discernment. Once this 
  level is reached, the more common forms of virtue become constant and 
  lasting, because self-identification has been shed through the power 
  of discernment. As for //silabbata-paramasa// ("groping" with regard 
  to precepts and practices), Stream-enterers no longer grope in their 
  behavior, because they've seen for sure that it's right. And as for 
  //vicikiccha// (uncertainty), they've abandoned all doubts concerning 
  the value of discernment, their way of life, and their path of 
  practice: They no longer wonder as to whether they're right or wrong. 
  Once they can do this, they set themselves apart from mundane virtues. 
  Mundane virtues are inconstant because they lack discernment. Why do 
  they lack discernment? Because we don't practice concentration in the 
  heart, and so we take stubborn possession of the body, latching onto 
  it and wrongly assuming it to be the self, to the point where even the 
  slightest touch from mosquitoes or horseflies, sun or rain, can cause 
  our goodness to wither and die.
  
       Transcendent virtues are thus supreme; mundane virtues are not 
  yet lasting. As to whether virtue will be transcendent or mundane, the 
  matter lies entirely with the heart.
  
              A dull-witted heart, lacking discernment,
                       Latches onto the body,
          But once it dies, it doesn't get to eat the meat
                         Or sit on the skin--
                      It'll choke on the bones.
               Lacking training, it lies sunk in pain.
  
           But a trained heart gives rise to discernment,
                         Lets go of the body,
                Discards it at death without regret.
                       Having seen the truth,
                     It's called noble, supreme.
  
  This ends the discussion of the third topic.
  
       4. To answer the fourth question -- "What is the essence of 
  virtue?" -- we first have to distinguish the essence of virtue, the 
  intention to abstain (//cetana-virati//), from the expressions of 
  virtue, which are of three kinds: //sampatta-virati//, //samadana 
  virati// and //samuchheda-virati//. These three are called expressions 
  of virtue because they follow on the precepts.
  
       //Sampatta-virati// means to restrain one's behavior on one's 
  own, without taking a vow -- for example, going out into the wide open 
  fields or into the forest and seeing an animal that would be good to 
  kill, but not killing it, for fear of the sin; or seeing another 
  person's belongings that would be good to take, but not taking them, 
  for fear of doing evil.
  
       //Samadana-virati// means to take the precepts as a vow -- either 
  on one's own or repeating them after another person -- and then being 
  careful not to violate them.
  
       //Samuccheda-virati// means to keep one's precepts pure and 
  unblemished, regardless of whether or not one has taken them as vows.
  
       For these expression of virtue to be pure or impure depends on a 
  number of minor factors arising from the exercise of thought, word, 
  and deed that either run counter to these expressions (thus blemishing 
  them) or are careful to follow them (thus keeping them pure).
  
       As for the essence of virtue -- "essence" here meaning the chief 
  agent or determining factor -- the essence is the heart that wills to 
  abstain from harm in thought, word, or deed -- the five forms of harm, 
  the eight, the ten, or what-have-you -- and is mindful to keep the 
  mind in a state of normalcy. Thus there are two kinds of virtue: pure 
  virtue, i.e., spotlessness in thought, word, and deed; and blemished 
  virtue, i.e., virtue torn into pieces or cut into holes. For example, 
  to observe two precepts but to break three that come in succession, is 
  virtue torn into pieces. If the precepts that are broken don't come in 
  succession, this is called stained virtue or virtue cut into holes.
  
       This is how to develop a bad character. People of bad character 
  do have virtue, but they don't take care of it. They don't make the 
  effort to maintain the precepts and so let evil come flowing in 
  through their words and deeds. Stained virtue, torn virtue, and virtue 
  cut into holes: Even though these are classed as evil, they're still 
  better than having no virtue at all. To have torn virtue is better 
  than having no virtue to tear, just as wearing torn clothes is better 
  than wearing no clothes at all. Everyone born has virtue built into 
  them; the only exceptions are those who have died.
  
       If this is the case, why do we have to observe precepts? To 
  observe precepts means that we take the virtue we already have and 
  cleanse it, not that we go gathering the virtues that grow on monks 
  and novices.
  
       We've already seen that virtue means a mind with sound 
  intentions; blemished virtue means a mind with unsound intentions. 
  This is enough to show that all of us in the world have virtue, 
  because who doesn't have a mind? Even crazy people have minds. The 
  only person without a mind is a corpse. Any and every human being who 
  breathes in and out has virtue, the only difference being whether or 
  not that virtue is pure. As the Buddha said to his followers,
  
               //cetanaham bhikkhave kammam vadami//:
     The intention, monks, is what I maintain to be the action.
  
  An evil intention blemishes virtue. A good intention helps keep it 
  pure. This ends the discussion of the fourth topic.
  
       5. The fifth question -- "What is needed for virtue to be 
  maintained?" -- can be answered as follows: Virtue here means purity 
  of virtue. For purity to be firm and lasting depends on the support of 
  casual factors, just as a new-born child depends on the support of its 
  parents to survive and grow. If its parents feed it plenty of food, it 
  will escape from the dangers of malnutrition and grow to be healthy 
  and strong; if they underfeed it, it'll become thin and frail. In the 
  same way, for virtue to be maintained depends on our being mindful and 
  self-aware: These two qualities are the guardians of purity. At the 
  same time, we have to nourish virtue and give it food. If it isn't 
  fed, it'll wither away and die. Even if it has mindfulness and 
  self-awareness watching over it, it can never grow plump, just as a 
  child who has parents but isn't fed is sure to waste and wither away. 
  For virtue to grow strong requires food, and the food of virtue is:
  
       a. //metta// -- good will, love for oneself and all others,
  hoping that all living beings will be happy;
  
       b. //karuna// -- compassion for oneself and others, hoping
  that we will all escape from suffering;
  
       c. //mudita// -- appreciation, ungrudging delight in the
  goodness of all living beings;
  
       d. //upekkha// -- equanimity, letting go in those cases where we 
  should remain indifferent, being unruffled -- neither pleased nor 
  upset -- where we are no longer able to be of help, as when an 
  executioner is beheading a criminal who has broken the law.
  
       These four Sublime Attitudes are the food of virtue.
  
                     Mindfulness is the father,
                     Self-awareness, the mother,
                And the "immeasurables" are the food.
  
       Whoever can do this will have virtues that are fat and strong. In 
  other words, when good will, compassion, appreciation, and equanimity 
  are expressed in thought, word, and deed, then virtue will be firm and 
  lasting and will head straight toward //nibbana//. This translates as 
  fat virtues, plump virtues, rich virtues, the virtues taught by the 
  Buddha Gotama. Whoever can't do this will end up with poor virtues, 
  sickly virtues, orphaned virtues, withered-and-wasting-away virtues.
  
                To have virtue is to have character,
                To have character is to have wealth,
                   To have wealth is to be happy;
            The happiness of virtue is something supreme.
  
       Virtue is an adornment that can be worn by people of every 
  variety. Young and old alike are attractive when wearing it, for no 
  matter who wears it, it never looks incongruous or out-of-place, 
  unlike external ornaments. External ornaments look good only in the 
  right circumstances, but virtue can be worn at all times. Whoever can 
  maintain virtue will escape from danger and animosity in this life and 
  the next. For this reason, people of discernment are careful to 
  safeguard their virtue. People without discernment go looking for 
  chains: golden chains for snaring their wrists, ankles, necks, and 
  earlobes. Even if they watch after them carefully and wear them only 
  on the right occasions, they still can't escape from harm -- as when a 
  thief rips off the chains, tearing their ears, scraping the skin from 
  their arms and legs. Consider, then, just how much good comes from 
  external adornment.
  
       As for virtue, when it encircles our thoughts, encircles our 
  words, and encircles our deeds, who can destroy it, what thief can 
  steal it, what fires can burn it away? After we die, we'll enjoy 
  ourselves in heaven, as guaranteed by the verse,
  
            //silena sugatim yanti silena bhogasampada//
                      //silena nibbutim yanti//
     The attainment of heaven, wealth and nibbana all depend on
                                virtue.
  
                    //silam loke anuttaram//
                 Virtue is unexcelled in the world.
  
         //candanadinam gandhanam sila-gandho anuttaro//
      Among all scents, such as sandalwood, the scent of virtue
                             is supreme.
  
                    //silo rahado akuddamo//
                    Virtue is like a limpid pool.
  
                   //sukham yava jara silam//
           Virtue brings happiness to the end of old age.
  
                    //silam yava jara sadhu//
                Virtue is good to the end of old age.
  
       Thus all who aspire to goodness that is limpid and pure should be 
  diligent in nourishing their virtues to the full with the four Sublime  
  Attitudes. Having done this, whoever then aspires to the middle part 
  of the Path -- concentration -- will attain quick results.
  
       This ends the discussion of the fifth topic.
  
  
                                 * * *
  
  
  
                  CONCENTRATION: QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
                                          
                                          
       1. How does one go about practicing concentration?
       2. What benefits come from practicing it?
       3. How many kinds of concentration are there?
       4. What is needed for concentration to be maintained?
       5. What is the essence of concentration?
  
       1. The first question -- "How does one go about practicing 
  concentration?" -- can be answered as follows: The first step is to 
  kneel down with your hands palm-to-palm in front of your heart, and 
  sincerely pay respect to the Triple Gem, saying as follows:
  
       ARAHAM SAMMA-SAMBUDDHO BHAGAVA
       BUDDHAM BHAGAVANTAM ABHIVADEMI (bow down)
       SVAKKHATO BHAGAVATA DHAMMO
       DHAMMAM NAMASSAMI (bow down)
       SUPATIPANNO BHAGAVATO SAVAKA-SANGHO
       SANGHAM NAMAMI (bow down)
  
  Then showing respect with your thought, words, and deeds, pay homage 
  to the Buddha:
  
       NAMO TASSA BHAGAVATO ARAHATO SAMMA-SAMBUDDHASSA (three times)
  
  And then take refuge in the Triple Gem:
       BUDDHAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
       DHAMMAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
       SANGHAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
       DUTIYAMPI BUDDHAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
       DUTIYAMPI DHAMMAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
       DUTIYAMPI SANGHAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
       TATIYAMPI BUDDHAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
       TATIYAMPI DHAMMAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
       TATIYAMPI SANGHAM SARANAM GACCHAMI
  
  Make the following resolution : "I take refuge in the Buddha, the Pure 
  One, completely free from defilement; and in his Dhamma -- doctrine, 
  practice, and attainment; and in the Sangha, the four levels of his 
  Noble Disciples, from now until the end of my life." Then formulate 
  the intention to observe the five precepts, the eight precepts, or the 
  ten guidelines -- according to how many you are normally able to 
  observe -- expressing them in a single vow. For those observing the 
  five precepts:
  
       IMANI PANCA SIKKHAPADANI SAMADIYAMI (three times)
  
  For those observing the eight precepts:
  
       IMANI ATTHA SIKKHAPADANI SAMADIYAMI (three times)
  
  For those observing the ten precepts:
  
       IMANI DASA SIKKHAPADANI SAMADIYAMI (three times)
  
  For those observing the 227 precepts:
  
       PARISUDDHO AHAM BHANTE PARISUDDHOTI
       MAM BUDDHO DHAMMO SANGHO DHARETU
  
  Now that you have professed the purity of your thoughts, words, and 
  deeds toward the qualities of the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, bow down 
  three times and sit down. Place your hands palm-to-palm in front of 
  your heart, steady your thoughts and develop the four Sublime 
  Attitudes: good will, compassion, appreciation, and equanimity. To 
  spread these thoughts to all living beings without distinction is 
  called the immeasurable Sublime Attitude. A short Pali formula, for 
  those who have trouble memorizing, is:
  
       "METTA" -- thoughts of good will (benevolence and love for 
  oneself and others, hoping for their welfare),
       "KARUNA" -- thoughts of compassion (for oneself and others),
       "MUDITA" -- thoughts of appreciation (taking delight in one's own 
  goodness and that of others),
       "UPEKKHA" -- thoughts of equanimity (imperturbability with regard 
  to those things that should be let go).
  
  This finished, sit in a half-lotus position, right leg on top of the 
  left, your hands placed palm-up on your lap, right hand on top of the 
  left. Keep your body straight and your mind on the task before you. 
  Raise your hands in respect, palm-to-palm in front of the heart, and 
  think of the qualities of the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha: BUDDHO ME 
  NATHO, DHAMMO ME NATHO, SANGHO ME NATHO (The Buddha, Dhamma, and 
  Sangha are my mainstay). Then repeat, BUDDHO BUDDHO, DHAMMO DHAMMO, 
  SANGHO SANGHO. Return your hands to your lap, and repeat one word -- 
  BUDDHO -- over and over in your mind, at the same time focusing on 
  your in-and-out breath until your mind settles down into 
  one-pointedness.
  
       This is the beginning step in practicing concentration. If you're 
  steady and persistent, the desired results will appear in your heart. 
  For people who are really intent, even just this is enough to start 
  seeing results. Those who don't see results either aren't intent on 
  what they're doing or, if they are intent, aren't doing it right. If 
  you're intent and you do it right, you're sure to reap rewards in 
  proportion to the strength of your persistence.
  
       This ends the discussion of the first topic.
  
  
       2. To answer the second question -- "What benefits come from 
  practicing concentration?" -- A person who practices concentration 
  benefits in the following ways:
  
       a. The heart of a person who practices concentration is radiant, 
  steady, and fearless. Whatever projects such a person may contemplate 
  can succeed because the mind has a solid footing for its thinking. 
  Whatever work such a person may undertake will yield results that are 
  substantial, worthwhile, and long-lasting.
  
       b. Whoever has trained the mind to be steady and firm will be 
  solid from the standpoint both of the world and of the Dhamma. A solid 
  heart can be compared to a slab of rock: No matter whether the wind 
  blows, the rain falls or the sun shines, rock doesn't waver or flinch. 
  To put it briefly: the eight fetters, i.e., the eight ways of the 
  world (//lokadhamma//) -- gain and loss, status and disgrace, praise 
  and censure, pleasure and pain -- can't chain the heart of a person 
  who has concentration. The five weevils, i.e., the five hindrances 
  (//nivarana//) -- sensual desires, ill will, drowsiness, restlessness, 
  and uncertainty -- can't bore into such a person's heart.
  
       c. A heart made firm is like a tree with solid heartwood -- 
  Indian rosewood or teak -- which, once it has died, is of use to 
  people of ingenuity. The goodness of people who have trained their 
  hearts in concentration can be of substantial use, even after they've 
  died, both to themselves and to those surviving, an example being the 
  Buddha who -- even though he has nibbana-ed -- has set an example that 
  people still follow today. A person who practices concentration is 
  like someone with a home and family; a person without concentration is 
  like a vagrant with no place to sleep: Even though he may have 
  belongings, he has nowhere to keep them.
  
        A person with a mind made firm in concentration, though, has a 
  place for his belongings. In other words, all major and minor acts of 
  merit and wisdom come together in a mind that has concentration. A 
  person without concentration is like a softwood tree with a hollow 
  trunk: Poisonous animals, like cobras or crocodile birds, will come 
  and make their nests in the hollow, laying their eggs and filling the 
  hollow with their urine and dung. When such a tree dies, there's no 
  use for it but to throw it into the fire. If people haven't trained 
  their hearts with concentration, all the defilements -- greed, anger 
  and delusion -- will come and make their nest there, causing harm and 
  pain. When these people die, they are of no use except as food for 
  worms or fuel for a pyre.
  
       d. A person without concentration is like a boat without a dock 
  or a train without a station: The passengers are put to all sorts of 
  hardships.
  
       Concentration is not something exclusive to Buddhism. Even in 
  mundane activities, people use concentration. No matter what work you 
  do, if you're not intent on it, you won't succeed. Even  our ordinary 
  everyday expressions teach concentration: "Set your heart on a goal." 
  "Set your mind on your work." "Set yourself up in business." Whoever 
  follows this sort of advice is bound to succeed.
  
       But apart from mundane activities, whoever comes to put the 
  Buddha's teachings into practice is sure to perceive the great worth 
  of concentration. To be brief: It forms the basis for discernment, 
  which is the central principle in the craft taught by the Buddha, the 
  craft of the heart. "Discernment" here refers to the wisdom and 
  insight that come only from training the heart. People who haven't 
  practiced concentration -- even if they're ingenious -- can't really 
  be classed as discerning. Their ingenuity is nothing more than 
  restless distraction -- an example being the person who thinks to the 
  point where his nerves break down, which goes to show that his 
  thoughts have no place to rest. They run loose, with no concentration.
  
        People with responsibilities on the level of the world or of the 
  Dhamma should train their hearts and minds to a state of 
  concentration. Then when the time comes to think, they can put their 
  thinking to work. When the time is past, they can put their thinking 
  away in concentration. In other words, they have a sense of time and 
  place, of when and where to think. People without concentration, who 
  haven't developed this sense, can wear out their minds; and when their 
  minds are worn out, everything breaks down. Even though they may have 
  the energy to speak and act, yet if their minds are exhausted, they 
  can't accomplish their purpose. Most of us use our minds without 
  caring for them. Morning, noon, and night; sitting, standing, walking, 
  and lying down, we don't rest for a moment. We're like a man who 
  drives a car or a boat: If he doesn't let it rest, he's headed for 
  trouble. The boat may rust out or the parts may break down, and when 
  this happens, he's in for a difficult time. When a person's mind 
  hasn't been developed in concentration, it can create difficulties for 
  its owner's body, as well as for the bodies of others.
  
       Thus the Buddha saw that concentration can be of value on the 
  level of the world and on the level of the Dhamma, which is why he 
  taught it in various ways to the people of the world. But some people 
  are deaf, i.e., they can't understand what concentration is about; or 
  else they're blind, i.e., they can't stand to look at the example of 
  those who practice, and so they become detractors and fault-finders.
  
       Those of us who hope to secure ourselves -- on either the level 
  of the world or the level of the Dhamma -- should thus give firm 
  support to the message of the Buddha. We shouldn't claim to be his 
  followers simply because we've been ordained in his order or have 
  studied his teachings, without putting those teachings into practice. 
  If we let ourselves be parasites like this, we'll do nothing but cause 
  Buddhism to degenerate.
  
       Thus people who train their minds to attain concentration are of 
  use to themselves and to others; people who don't train their minds to 
  attain concentration will cause harm to themselves and to others. To 
  attain concentration is like having a strategic fortress with a good 
  vantage point: If enemies come from within or without, you'll be able 
  to see them in time. The discernment that comes from concentration 
  will be the weapon enabling you to wage war and destroy defilement. 
  Whatever is worthwhile, you will keep in your heart. Whatever is 
  harmful, you will throw out. The discernment that comes from 
  concentration will enable you to tell which is which.
  
       These, then, are the benefits reaped by those who practice 
  concentration, and the drawbacks suffered by those who don't.
  
       This ends the discussion of the second topic.
  
  
       3. To answer the third question:
  
       a. There are two kinds of concentration, general (//sadharana//) 
  and exclusive (//asadharana//). General concentration refers to the 
  type of mental training found throughout the world and not restricted 
  to any particular religion, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, or 
  Hinduism. All of these religions are based on concentration, which can 
  thus be called "general concentration." Exclusive concentration is a 
  type of concentration specifically Buddhist and not shared by other 
  religions. When practiced, it gives to the transcendent states: the 
  paths, their fruitions, and //nibbana//. Thus it can be called 
  "exclusive concentration."
  
       General and exclusive, though can be understood in still another 
  sense: General concentration means concentration that can be focused 
  on any of your postures -- sitting, standing, walking, or lying down. 
  Exclusive concentration has nothing to do with your posture, but is 
  done exclusively in the heart: You focus attention solely on the 
  in-and-out breath, without getting involved in actions or speech; your 
  attention is directed solely to the activities of the mind.
  
       b. With regard to its levels, there are three kinds of 
  concentration: momentary (//khanika//), threshold (//upacara//), and 
  fixed (//appana//).
  
       Momentary concentration can arise when you're intent on your work 
  or when you see a visual object, hear a sound, smell an aroma, taste a 
  flavor, when the body comes into contact with a tactile sensation, or 
  a mental notion arises to the mind -- as when you become firm in your 
  repetition of //buddho//. When the mind becomes still for a moment 
  under conditions like these, this is classed as momentary 
  concentration. Momentary concentration is like a person diving down 
  into a pond and then climbing up onto the bank when he resurfaces.
  
       Threshold concentration: When you practice mindfulness immersed 
  in the body (//kayagatasati//), mentally scrutinizing the parts of the 
  body until you are struck by the fact that they are filthy and 
  repulsive, simply compounds of the four physical properties of earth, 
  water, fire, and wind: Thinking in this way is termed //vitakka//; to 
  come to this sort of realization is termed //vicara//. The mind will 
  then come to a halt, still and at ease for a short period, and then 
  withdraw,  like a person who dives down into a pond, resurfaces, and 
  then swims around for a while before climbing up onto the bank. This 
  is called threshold concentration because it comes on the verge of 
  fixed penetration.
  
       Fixed penetration: The mind is steady and firmly concentrated -- 
  paying no attention at all to sights, sounds, smells, tastes, or 
  tactile sensations -- being completely absorbed in a single mental 
  notion. It takes shelter in a subtle preoccupation (//arammana//), and 
  so is able to hide away from the five hindrances, although it can't 
  yet kill them off absolutely. Even so, this is still termed fixed 
  penetration because it can be entered for long periods of time, like a 
  person who dives down to the bottom of a pond, resurfaces, and then 
  swims around in all four directions (the four levels of //jhana//).
  
       All three of these levels of concentration are classed as 
  general. They're practiced all over the world. The only form of 
  concentration particular to Buddhism is transcendent concentration. 
  Viewed from this standpoint, the forms of concentration are only two: 
  mundane and transcendent. Mundane concentration is further divided 
  into two sorts: that which is accompanied by the hindrances, and that 
  which is accompanied by the discernment of liberating insight 
  (//vipassana//). Transcendent concentration is also divided into two 
  sorts: that which has abandoned the five lower fetters (//sanyojana//) 
  but is still accompanied by a number of the hindrances; and that which 
  is accompanied by the realization of liberating insight, eradicating 
  all the hindrances.
  
       The three levels of concentration (momentary, threshold, and 
  fixed) form the basis of discernment. Both mundane and transcendent 
  discernment have to depend on one or another of these three levels of 
  concentration, but concentration is not what constitutes Awakening. 
  Awakening is accomplished by discernment. If discernment is lacking, 
  no amount of concentration, however great, can lead to Awakening.
  
       Once you have attained concentration, the arising of discernment 
  can depend on one of two factors: an experienced friend makes a 
  suggestion that sparks a realization of the opening leading onto 
  discernment; or external events -- sights, sounds, smells, tastes, or 
  tactile sensations -- strike the mind, which stirs for a moment and 
  sets out to scrutinize them (this is called //vitakka// and 
  //vicara//) so as to ferret out an understanding of their nature. If 
  you see that any of these two kinds of events give beneficial results, 
  then fix your attention on them and keep after them, using the power 
  of your discernment and ingenuity to gain true insight into their 
  nature. But if you see that your discernment is still no match for 
  them, focus back on the original object of your concentration. If you 
  focus back and forth in this manner, you'll give rise to liberating 
  insight; and once you've given rise to liberating insight, you will 
  attain transcendent discernment, the understanding that will enable 
  you to abandon once and for all your views of self-identification.
  
       Transcendent concentration derives its name from the discernment 
  it gives rise to: The discernment itself is what constitutes 
  Awakening. But for discernment to be effective in line with the aims 
  of the Buddha's teachings, it requires the back-up and support of 
  concentration.
  
       This ends the discussion of the third topic.
  
  
       4. The fourth question -- "What is needed for concentration to be 
  maintained?" -- can be answered as follows: Concentration means for 
  the mind to be firmly intent on a single preoccupation, but for the 
  mind to be firm, it needs a footing to hold onto. In general, if your 
  mind lacks a solid footing, nothing you attempt will succeed. Just as 
  the body needs a shelter as a basis for its well-being, and speech 
  needs a listener as a basis for being effective, in a similar way, the 
  mind -- if it's to become trained and firm in concentration -- needs a 
  //kammatthana//:  an assignment or exercise. A //kammatthana// is like 
  medicine or food. To know the theme of your exercise is enough to 
  start getting results in your practice of concentration.
  
       Here we will first divide the exercises into two categories: 
  external and internal. External exercises deal with sights, sounds, 
  smells, tastes, tactile sensations, and ideas; the internal exercises 
  deal with the five aggregates (//khandha//): physical phenomena 
  (//rupa//), feelings (//vedana//), labels (//sanna//), mental 
  fashionings (//sankhara//), and cognizance (//vinnana//). If you're 
  alert and discerning, both categories -- external as well as internal 
  -- are enough to achieve concentration unless you neglect to treat 
  them as exercises. If you attend to them, they are all you need to 
  attain concentration. But beginners, whose powers of discernment are 
  still weak, should start first with the internal exercises. Start out 
  by studying the body -- "physiology from the inside" -- by 
  scrutinizing the four properties of earth, water, fire, and wind. 
  People whose powers of discernment have been sufficiently developed 
  can then give rise to concentration using any of the themes of 
  meditation, whether internal or external.
  
       The internal exercises should be done as follows: Focus on the 
  properties of earth, water, fire, and wind that appear in the body. 
  Don't let your thoughts wander outside. Focus exclusively on your own 
  body and mind, fixing your attention first on five examples of the 
  earth property: //kesa// -- hair of the head; //loma// -- hair of the 
  body; //nakha// -- nails; //danta// -- teeth; //taco// -- skin, which 
  wraps up the body and bones. Scrutinize these five parts until you see 
  that they are unattractive, filthy, and repulsive, either with regard 
  to where they come from, where they are, their color, their shape, or 
  their smell.
  
       If, after focusing your thoughts in this way, your mind doesn't 
  become still, go on to scrutinize five examples of the water property: 
  //pittam// -- gall, bitter and green; //semham// -- phlegm, which 
  prevents the smell of digesting food from rising to the  mouth; 
  //pubbo// -- pus, decayed and decomposing, which comes from wounds; 
  //lohitam// -- blood and lymph, which permeate throughout the body; 
  //sedo// -- sweat, which is exuded whenever the body is heated. 
  Scrutinize these things until you see that -- with regard to origin, 
  location, color, smell and the above-mentioned aspects -- they are 
  enough to make your skin crawl. Focus on them until you're convinced 
  that that's how they really are, and the mind should settle down and 
  be still.
  
       If it doesn't, go on to examine four aspects of the fire 
  property: the heat that keeps the body warm; the heat that inflames 
  the body, making it feverish and restless; the heat that digests food, 
  distilling the nutritive essence so as to send it throughout the body 
  (of the food we eat, one part is burned away by the fires of 
  digestion, one part becomes refuse, one part feeds our parasites, and 
  the remaining part nourishes the body); the heat that ages the body 
  and wastes it away. Consider these four aspects of the fire property 
  until you see their three inherent characteristics, i.e., that they 
  are inconstant (//aniccam//), stressful (//dukkham//) and not-self 
  (//anatta//).
  
       If the mind doesn't settle down, go on to consider the wind 
  property: the up-going breath sensations, the down-going breath 
  sensations, the breath sensations in the stomach, the breath 
  sensations in the intestines, the breath sensations flowing throughout 
  the entire body, and the in-and-out breath. Examine the wind property 
  from the viewpoint of any one of its three inherent characteristics, 
  as inconstant, stressful, or not-self. If the mind doesn't develop a 
  sense of dispassion and detachment, gather all four properties 
  together -- earth, water, fire and wind -- and consider them as a 
  single whole: a physical phenomenon. That's all they are, just 
  physical phenomena. There's nothing of any substance or lasting worth 
  to them at all.
  
       If this doesn't lead to a sense of dispassion and detachment, go 
  on to consider mental phenomena (//nama//), which are formless: 
  //vedana//) -- the experiencing of feelings and moods, likes and 
  dislikes; //sanna// -- labels, names, allusions; //sankhara// -- 
  mental fashionings; and //vinnana// -- cognizance.
  
       Once you understand what these terms refer to, focus on the 
  feelings that appear in your own heart and mind. In other words, 
  observe the mental states that experience moods and feelings, to see 
  at which moments there are feelings of pleasure, pain, or 
  indifference. Be aware that, "Right now I'm experiencing pleasure," 
  "Right now I'm experiencing pain," "Right now I'm experiencing a 
  feeling that's neither pleasure nor pain." Be constantly aware of 
  these three alternatives (the feeling that's neither pleasure nor pain 
  doesn't last for very long). If you're really composed and observant, 
  you'll come to see that all three of these feelings are, without 
  exception, fleeting, stressful, and not-self; neither long nor 
  lasting, always shifting and changing out of necessity: sometimes 
  pleasure, sometimes a little, never satisfying your wants or desires. 
  Once you see this, let go of them. Don't fasten onto them. Fix your 
  mind on a single preoccupation.
  
       If your mind still isn't firm, though, consider mental labels 
  next. What, at the moment, are your thoughts alluding to: things past, 
  present, or future? Good or bad? Keep your awareness right with the 
  body and mind. If you happen to be labeling or alluding to a feeling 
  of pleasure, be aware of the pleasure. If pain, be aware of the pain. 
  Focus on whatever you are labeling in the present, to see which will 
  disappear first: your awareness or the act of labeling. Before long, 
  you'll see that the act of labeling is fleeting, stressful, and 
  not-self. When you see this, let go of labels and allusions. Don't 
  latch onto them. Fix your mind on a single preoccupation.
  
       If your mind still isn't firm, go on to consider mental 
  fashionings: What issues are your thoughts forming at the moment: past 
  or future? Are your thoughts running in a good direction or bad? About 
  issues outside the body and mind, or inside? Leading to peace of mind 
  or to restlessness? Make yourself constantly self-aware, and once 
  you're aware of the act of mental fashioning, you'll see that all 
  thinking is fleeting, stressful, and not-self. Focus your thoughts 
  down on the body and mind, and then let go of all aspects of thinking, 
  fixing your attention on a single preoccupation.
  
       If the mind still doesn't settle down, though, consider 
  cognizance next: What, at the moment, are you cognizant of -- things 
  within or without? Past, present, or future? Good or bad? Worthwhile 
  or worthless? Make yourself constantly self-aware. Once your powers of 
  reference and presence of mind are constant, you'll see immediately 
  that all acts of cognizance are fleeting, stressful, and not-self. 
  Then focus on the absolute present, being aware of the body and mind. 
  Whatever appears in the body, focus on it. Whatever appears in the 
  mind, focus on just what appears. Keep your attention fixed until the 
  mind becomes firm, steady, and still in a single preoccupation -- 
  either as momentary concentration, threshold concentration, or fixed 
  penetration -- so as to form a basis for liberating insight.
  
       Thus for concentration or steadiness of mind to arise in a fully 
  developed form and to be firmly maintained depends on the sort of 
  internal exercises mentioned here, dealing with the body, feelings, 
  labels, mental fashionings, and acts of cognizance. These are the 
  foods of concentration. The four frames of reference 
  (//satipatthana//) are its guardian nurses. Whoever wants his or her 
  concentration to be strong should nourish it well. Once the mind has 
  been properly nourished and put into shape, it can be put to effective 
  use.
  
       This ends the discussion of the fourth topic.
  
  
       5. The fifth question -- -"What is the essence of concentration?" 
  -- can be answered as follows: Concentration means for the mind to be 
  firmly intent. To be firmly intent can mean either (a) intent on a 
  mental prop or preoccupation, which is termed //appana jhana//, fixed 
  absorption; or (b) intent exclusively on the mind itself, which is 
  termed //appana citta//, the fixed mind. The mind that's intent forms 
  the essence of concentration.
  
       If we were to put this another way, we could make a distinction 
  between //cetana samadhi//, concentration that is intent on 
  concentration, and //cetana-virati samadhi//, concentration that is 
  intent on abstinence. In //cetana samadhi//, the mind has cut itself 
  off from external preoccupations through the power of concentration. 
  In //cetana-virati samadhi//, the mind is set on finding a technique 
  for letting go of all preoccupations, both within and without. 
  //Cetana samadhi// means to be focused directly on the mind. In other 
  words, the mind doesn't think of using any other way to straighten 
  itself out. Simply focusing down is enough to repress the defilements, 
  because we all are bound to have defilements intermixed in our minds, 
  and the very mind that has defilements can cure the mind of its 
  defilements, without having to look for any other means -- just like 
  using heat to cure heat, cold to cure cold, or wind to cure wind.
  
       For example, suppose a man is slightly singed by a small flame, 
  but then is burned by a glowing ember or lantern flame: The pain from 
  the first burn will disappear. Or suppose you feel a little chilly and 
  have to wrap yourself up in a blanket: If you then get exposed to a 
  bitter cold winter wind, you'll feel that the slight chill you had 
  earlier didn't warrant getting wrapped up in a blanket at all. As for 
  an example of wind curing wind: Suppose a person suffers a slight 
  disorder of the internal wind element, causing him to belch. If he 
  then suffers a violent disorder of the wind element, causing cramps in 
  a part of his body, his belching will immediately disappear. In the 
  same way, the mind can use defilement to suppress defilement. This is 
  called //cetana samadhi//. In //cetama-virati samadhi//, though, the 
  mind has to search for strategies both within and without, using a 
  good preoccupation to cure a bad one, such as making reference to the 
  ten themes for recollection (//anussati//).
  
       The mind is what is intent; the intent mind forms the essence of 
  concentration. The term "fixed mind" (//appana citta//) refers to the 
  mind that is resilient, firm, and uninfluenced by its preoccupations. 
  In fixed penetration or fixed absorption, though, the mind is firmly 
  implanted in its preoccupation, but is still in bad straits because it 
  doesn't yet know the true nature of that preoccupation. It can't yet 
  let it go. For the mind to let go of its preoccupations, you have to 
  use discernment to keep after it, safeguarding it so that it doesn't 
  move in line with them. Only then will the mind be on the verge of 
  purity, in line with the statement, "The mind, when disciplined by 
  discernment, is freed from all mental effluents."
  
       For the mind to arrive at these two forms of concentration -- 
  which we have termed //cetana samadhi// and //cetana-virati samadhi// 
  -- it must first be disciplined by virtue. Concentration then 
  disciplines discernment; discernment disciplines virtue; discernment 
  disciplines concentration; discernment disciplines the mind. Once we 
  are able to follow through with this, we are bound to see the true 
  essence of concentration. Most of us, though, simply use virtue to 
  discipline concentration, and concentration to discipline discernment, 
  without using discernment to discipline the mind, which is why we get 
  attached to our own views and our own way of doing things. This is 
  called self-identification (//sakkaya-ditthi//), the way of viewing 
  things that leads us to latch onto them as belonging to us or as being 
  the self. We're unable to let go and so get stuck on virtue, or stuck 
  on concentration, or infatuated with our own discernment. We drown in 
  a flood of views and opinions (//ditthi ogha//) simply because we 
  don't know what lies at the essence of concentration.
  
       To be able to know, we have to vary our practice slightly, by 
  cleansing virtue so as to foster concentration, cleansing 
  concentration so as to foster discernment, cleansing discernment so 
  that our views are right, and then using that discernment to cleanse 
  virtue and concentration once more. Once virtue and concentration have 
  been made pure, we don't need to use discernment to cleanse them any 
  further. We simply practice them as a matter of course, and use 
  discernment to cleanse directly at the mind. The aspects of virtue and 
  concentration that are concerned with methods and rules will 
  disappear, leaving just discernment working at cleansing the mind 
  until it is steady and firm -- but not firm in the preoccupations of 
  concentration, though; firm in the preoccupations of discernment.
  
        If we were to classify the mind at this stage, it is //appana 
  citta//, the fixed mind. As for concentration, it is momentary 
  concentration. Momentary concentration is the basis for the tempered 
  discernment of liberating insight. The mind can't stay long with any 
  preoccupations, for it is constantly wiping them out, like the bubbles 
  formed by rain on the surface of a lake: As soon as they appear, they 
  vanish flat away, like a sea without the striking of waves. When 
  discernment is tempered through the power of a fixed mind, the 
  preoccupations of momentary concentration constantly disband and 
  disappear, not letting the heart get caught up on them. This is termed 
  release (//vimutti//): The mind is freed from all preoccupations, 
  among them the effluents of sensuality, becoming, views, and 
  unawareness. It becomes a mind beyond all effluents. Thus it is said,
  
              //khina jati vusitam brahmacariyam
                         katam karaniyam
                 naparam itthattayati pajanatiti//
  
  which means, "The Noble Disciple discerns that birth is ended, the 
  holy life is completed, the task done. There is nothing further to be 
  done for the sake of this state."
  
       So ultimately, when the practice of concentration reaches the 
  true essence of the mind, discernment is attained.
  
       This ends the discussion of the fifth topic.
  
                      The issues discussed here
               People of wisdom should chew over well.
                          Chew them up fine
                 So they don't stick in your throat.
         If they aren't well-chewed, they'll have no flavor.
           If you chew them well, you'll know their taste.
                            Like eating:
              If you have no teeth, you'll waste away.
                 If you don't crack open the Dhamma,
                       You'll end up in doubt,
               And won't get out and away from stress.
                      If you don't get release,
                     You'll only get to heaven.
  
                  The worthiness of our own actions
                           Is what counts
                Both in the Dhamma and in the world.
                           So inspect this
                            And yourself,
                             Thoroughly.
  
       With this, //Mastering Virtue// is completed.
  
                                Phra Ajaan Lee Dhammadharo
  
  The Forest Temple
  Shrimp Canal
  Chanthaburi
  
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